In an Empire State of Mind

For thousands of years people have fought for power. This is evident in the obvious cases, like the Spanish conquest in Central and South America, Hitler's ambition just before World War II, etc. However, there are cases were it isn't as clear, but in the end about everything we do, we do for power without even realizing so. About every dream anybody can have is related to power: Fame, wealth, and success would all give a person power over other people. And don't even get me started on the impossible dreams people have, like immortality, mind-reading, and time-traveling (yes, even time-traveling; just think of Back to the Future). So it must be of no surprise that language has now become a means of power as well.

As languages fight for power, some fall and some rise. Latin is already pretty much inexistent, while English is at its peak. However, it doesn't happen to be there just because. It actually took centuries of work in order for it to be at the top. During the 1600's and early 1700's the British colonized what is now known as America. By the middle of the 18th century, the United States had already developed into thirteen colonies. Later on, they began to fight for independence, and in 1776 Americans earned their freedom from England. The British who held power were forced to leave... well all but one, though: All except for the English language. Americans might have thought they had gotten rid of all British dominance, but they had missed this, which could even be considered the most powerful of all. After all, "languages can enslave the people" (8:50).

Later on, the British moved on to other countries, among them, India. When they began colonizing India, this country had tons of languages. However, they began to impose English as the most important one, and it was obligatory to have this language taught in schools. Eventually, English became the prevalent language, and anybody who spoke English became "superior." Just like this, the people of yet another society had become the slaves of the English language.

Nowadays, this slavery has spread all over the world. Anywhere on the globe, people who speak English are automatically superior, and this language continues to become increasingly spoken by the public. You can basically go to any country in the world, and it'll be ok if you don't speak its language... well, as long as you know English. Because now the English empire has spread, and "the sun never sets on the English language" (0:51).


The Adventure of English (Episode 7):
RainbowEyes1000. "The Adventure of English - Episode 7 - The Language of Empire (1/5)." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 7, Oct. 2012. Web. 31. Jan. 2013.

RainbowEyes1000. "The Adventure of English - Episode 7 - The Language of Empire (2/5)." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 7, Oct. 2012. Web. 31. Jan. 2013.

RainbowEyes1000. "The Adventure of English - Episode 7 - The Language of Empire (3/5)." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 7, Oct. 2012. Web. 31. Jan. 2013.

RainbowEyes1000. "The Adventure of English - Episode 7 - The Language of Empire (4/5)." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 7, Oct. 2012. Web. 31. Jan. 2013.

RainbowEyes1000. "The Adventure of English - Episode 7 - The Language of Empire (5/5)." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 7, Oct. 2012. Web. 31. Jan. 2013.

Language Questions

1. Where does the word assassin derive from?

"Assasin" derives from Arabic.

2. How big is the English lexicon?
It is impossible to know because it's endlessly growing.

3. What prefixes un suffixes do you recognize?
Prefixes: anti-, multi-, poly-, un-
Suffixes: -ious, -able, -ly

4. Why do neologistic borrowings enter the English language in the 18th and 19th centuries?
In the 18th and 19th centuries neologistic borrowing enter the English language due to the interactions between Americans, Dutch, etc. in the colonies and due to the Industrial Revolution.

5. Describe the relationship between empire and language.
An empire controls other civilizations, and it commonly imposes its language among these.

6.  Do you think empires still affect language in the 21st century? Explain.
I think empires do continue to affect language today. The United States is currently an immense empire, and due to this, English is widely spoken all around the world.

Linguistic Notorieties

Through history there have always been those special protagonists who pop-up when it comes to certain topics. Think of classical music, and the symphonies of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Bethoven, Antonio Vivaldi, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky will come to mind. Think of literature, and the works of William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Mark Twain will rush forward. And finally, think of the English language, and the influences of John Locke, Jonathan Swift, Samuel Johnson, William Cobbett, William Wordsworth, Thomas Paine, and even Isaac Newton will suddenly hold a very important role (but in case you're not very familiar with these linguistic protagonists, don't worry, I'm about to explain).

John Locke wanted everybody to learn English, because "if the definition of words could be agreed, and misunderstanding avoided, peace would naturally follow" (2:25). But, if everybody did learn, speakers would be able to tell apart those who just learned the language from those who have known it all their lives, and conflict would inevitably rise again. However, let's pretend that everybody can speak the language equally as well. Would that actually bring peace? Not all conflicts revolve around linguistics. In fact, most of them don't. My sister and I, for example, know English and Spanish, and still we have plenty of fights that don't even relate to the subject of linguistics. And, as far as I know (unless you twist it at odd angles) World War II had nothing to do with linguistic matters either. Hitler would probably have continued, even if everybody in the world had spoken English back then. He might have even found it easier to convince others about the "dangers" that the Jews brought. Yeah, so maybe the common knowledge of the components of the dictionary isn't what we need in order to live in peace.

Jonathan Swift was somehow similar. He didn't want English to change, and hated the changes people deliberately decided to make on the language. There are still people like him today; but they never have been (and probably never will be) able to avoid the incessant changes English undergoes. Those who still stick to this ideal are fighting a lost battle. It has been evident for centuries that English will change. And now especially, with all the new technology that influences the majority of the population, language is bound to change.

As other men attempted to unify English speakers as one mass, William Cobbett examined them as several groups. Although he believed that proper grammar was indispensable in order to prevail in society, he knew that not everybody would have this "proper grammar." Thus, he studied the different grammar usage and vocabulary people had: slang. Aided by his theory about proper grammar, today's social classes were created.

Samuel Johnson also made a difference: he wrote the first dictionary written in seven years. It contained 43,000 words, each with a definition. Unfortunately, he omitted all the words he didn't know and the ones he couldn't figure out how to define. Because of this, it ended up not being such a reliable dictionary after all. For all you knew, that word you spent entire minutes looking for, might not even be there. After all, those words he didn't know were probably the ones most people didn't know either.

Newton probably wouldn't have been very pleased with Johnson's dictionary, as he was the creator of many scientific terms. There are so many of these that there's now more than an entire unit in Physics dedicated to learning about them. Nowadays these ideas and terms are vital in the scientific world; however, back then, these ideas and terms might not have seemed too important to a lot of people, or they might have been too difficult to grasp.

This was the reason why William Wordsworth preferred simple vocabulary over eloquent words. He thought that in order to have everyone understand, fancy words were unnecessary. Thomas Paine believed so too. This is why he wrote the Rights of Man in common English. This was a very smart thing to do, because the commoners were bound to support him. However, they would never have done so if they hadn't even been able to understand the document.

However, none of these linguistic protagonists are either completely wrong or completely right. Misunderstandings have caused plenty of disputes, as Locke predicted; and there are some words in English that most likely will remain relatively unchanged over time, as Swift desired. Despite Cobbett's studies and conclusions, there are nowadays lower-class people who speak impecable English and upper-class ones who you would expect to find anywhere but in a rich family. And although Samuel Johnson's dictionary lacked in helpfulness, it did establish a definition for many words. People might have had an idea of what they meant, but a clear definition had not been established until then. Finally, although Paine and Wordsworth preferred simple terms, in the end, it all depends on the audience. It is perfectly fine to refer to the public in such unadorned ways, but speaking in the same manner to a group of politicians would be unwise. There's not much to say about Newton though. He invented his own terms; so unless his theories are suddenly found to be wrong, he will be right for at least a while.

A Step Apart

The sixth episode of The History of English focuses on the use of English in America versus its use in Canada. There was one small comment that caught my entire attention: “Over here, that is a hOuse, over there, in the United States, it’s a house.” (7:50). The spread of the English language and the creation of pronunciations has been a constant topic in the documentary, yet it is amazing how a boarder dividing two different countries, divides dialects as well.

When you compare an Australian, a British and an American pronunciation, the differences can be easily justified by their distant locations. Being on three, very different parts of the world, the influences that have reached every country have varied, and can therefore explain the several differences from one another.

On the other hand, how can you explain the differences between the American and the Canadian accents? It is understandable, that when the Civil War ended, the Loyalists settled in Canada, along with French and other European influences. America did also have European influences, but those in Canada were much stronger.

However, as time went by, why did American and Canadian differences in language grow? Why is it that we pronounce “about” differently as we cross a border? Is it the same reason as to why, when you fly from LA to Louisiana, people seem to be speaking different languages?

What confuses me the most is how close to each other both of the countries are. It’s like, I step into Canada and the accent is completely different from the American one, even though the US is only two steps behind me. Shouldn’t the change be more subtle? Maybe I misinterpreted what the documentary said, maybe the change is subtle and not what I’m imagining. But thinking of language that way... it really blew my mind.



The Story of English (Episode 6):
Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 1/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 2/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 3/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 4/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 5/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 6 - An English Speaking World - Part 6/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 7/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 19. Jan. 2013.

Thank the Creoles

We all know about the era of slavery in the United States. Thousands and thousands of ships left Africa every month with kidnapped people who were to become the unpaid servants of the wealthy and middle class Americans. Soon-to-be slaves left their native cultures and where faced later with the rising capitalism of the United States. The cultures were completely different, and Africans did not know English and, since the came from so many different parts of the continent, it was hard for them to communicate amongst themselves as well. This, then, marked the emergence of new languages.

As Africans tried to communicate, new creole languages were created (mixtures between their native tongues and American English). One of these still is considered - although very similar to English - to be an entirely different language. Its name is Gullah, "a unique variety of English"(6:00) spoken in Charlestone, and it is pretty easy to understand. A YouTube commenter asked:"Why were the subtitles necessary? I could understand everything those two were saying,"and I, like him, could understand everything as well, because of the similarities with English. However, this language, after surviving for 300 years, is on the verge of extinction. This is because many people are ashamed of speaking this language. I guess this might be because prescriptivists who are unaware of this completely separate language, will probably believe it is English spoken in a "wrong" way, and put down the native speakers because of this.

Creole languages create ambiguity among the linguists, since most of them later merge to the English language. Many people criticize this, but I really appreciate it. As someone who knows English and Spanish, I love writing in English and would much rather do it in this language (which is not my first tongue) than in Spanish. This is greatly due to the  immense variety of words that English has (171,476 and 47,156 obsolete words (Oxford Dictionary). There are so many ways to say a single word, that when I write, I am able to say exactly what I want to say, and I don't have to simply settle on a word that doesn't completely satisfy me.

But why is the English vocabulary so vast? Well, thanks to the former creole tongues, of course. As most of them disappeared, many did leave behing words that stayed in the English vocabulary and are probably still used today. We owe the vastness of English vocabulary to the Normans, who added words with French roots, the Scotts, and now, Africans. They are not to be criticized for speaking differently, but, instead,  praised for expanding the language.


The Story of English (Episode 5):
Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 1/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 2/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 3/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 4/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 5/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 6/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 5 - An English Speaking World - Part 7/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 17. Jan. 2013.

Elitist Languages

Accents ur somethin' 'at hae aye puzzled me. wa, if it's basically th' sam leid, dae fowk in different regions spick in dissimilar ways? thes has enthralled me fur sae lang. Ah used tae believe 'at each leid - let's use sassenach as uir example - started relatively th' sam in each place it was spoken in (englain, irelain, scootlund, an' later th' united states, etc.), an' 'en each region developed its ain twang. in other words, Ah thooght sassenach started as british a' place, an' 'en slowly changed. efter realizin' part ay th' truth, mah former beliefs seem bonnie childish an' ignorant.

Episode fower frae th' story ay sassenach gi'es a specific explanation tae an accent: th' scottish accent. scottish was initially a leid ay its own; however, as scootlund began mergin' wi' englain, sae did their languages. scottish becam a kin' ay creole leid until it ceased bein' considered as a separate leid an' becam simply a type ay sassenach, as it continues tae be seen the-day.

Unfortunately, leid isnae only used as a way tae communicate, but also as a way tae determine a persons status in society. a person's accent can indicate elegance an' gear ur be used against him/her. Ah min' somebody ance commentin' 'at someone's fake british accent resembled 'at ay a relatively puir area in englain. Ah foond thes tae be a bit elitist, but noo Ah realize 'at linguistic class divisions ur common in stoatin britain. th' video mentions a body ay th' accents: "upper - class english" (2:57). Ah realize 'at it's nae mair than th' nam it was given, but still, it is quite an elitist nam.&

Ain fa ur amang those fa dinnae spick "upper - class sassenach?" weel, those wi' a scottish accent. in th' pest, people's fash yerse tae appear elegant was sae stoatin 'at some ay th' scottish - whose accent was considered tae be rustic - took "classes tae eliminate marks ay rusticity" (3:36). it's sad hoo society emits sic' pressure oan them, 'at they become ashamed ay their ain pronunciation, which is actually a part ay them.

However, it isnae only in sassenach 'at vocabulary ur accents reveal social status. Ah hadnae realized afair, but thes also happens in spanish. in colombia, it happens especially wi' vocabulary: th' "tacky" words. these ur sets ay words 'at, withit e'en realizin' sae, we automatically relate tae lower social statuses. it is sae common, thocht, 'at we nae longer notice fa we it is we're makin' fin ay. when a mukker uses it, we automatically repeat th' wuid jokingly. however, whit we dornt realize is 'at we arenae makin' fin ay th' bodie fa jist used it (by accident, probably): we ur makin' fin ay th' fowk fa use them aw th' time. we hae become th' elitists.





Accents are something that have always puzzled me. Why, if it's basically the same language, do people in different regions speak in dissimilar ways? This has enthralled me for so long. I used to believe that each language - let's use English as our example - started relatively the same in each place it was spoken in (England, Ireland, Scotland, and later the United States, etc.), and then each region developed its own twang. In other words, I thought English started as British everywhere, and then slowly changed. After realizing part of the truth, my former beliefs seem pretty childish and ignorant.

Episode four from The Story of English gives a specific explanation to an accent: the Scottish accent. Scottish was initially a language of its own; however, as Scotland began merging with England, so did their languages. Scottish became a kind of creole language until it ceased being considered as a separate language and became simply a type of English, as it continues to be seen today.

Unfortunately, language is not only used as a way to communicate, but also as a way to determine a persons status in society. A person's accent can indicate elegance and wealth or be used against him/her. I remember somebody once commenting that someone's fake British accent resembled that of a relatively poor area in England. I found this to be a bit elitist, but now I realize that linguistic class divisions are common in Great Britain. The video mentions one of the accents: "Upper - Class English" (2:57). I realize that it's no more than the name it was given, but still, it is quite an elitist name.

And who are among those who do not speak "Upper - Class English?" Well, those with a Scottish accent. In the past, people's worry to appear elegant was so great that some of the Scottish - whose accent was considered to be rustic - took "classes to eliminate marks of rusticity" (3:36). It's sad how society emits such pressure on them, that they become ashamed of their own pronunciation, which is actually a part of them.

However, it is not only in English that vocabulary or accents reveal social status. I hadn't realized before, but this also happens in Spanish. In Colombia, it happens especially with vocabulary: the "tacky" words. These are sets of words that, without even realizing so, we automatically relate to lower social statuses. It is so common, though, that we no longer notice who we it is we're making fun of. When a friend uses it, we automatically repeat the word jokingly. However, what we don't realize is that we are not making fun of the person who just used it (by accident, probably): we are making fun of the people who use them all the time. We have become the elitists.


The Story of English (Episode 4):
Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 1/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 2/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 3/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 4/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 5/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 6/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 4 - An English Speaking World - Part 7/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 15. Jan. 2013.

A Survivor

English is spoken by more than 700 million people in the world nowadays. However, few of them ever stop and think about where those words they speak everyday come from... and then, most of them find no easy-to-acquire answer, so they ignore their initial question and go on with their lives. I had never actually asked myself this question. I had, on many occasions, wondered how it is that so many accents were developed. But I never considered what came before the accents: how the English language developed from being nothing.

It wasn't even easy for this language to develop in the first place. When I imagined language evolving and changing, I thought of it doing so in a way similar today's: Teenagers (not limited to them, but especially them) create new slang words, then they grow up and continue using this slang, while the next generation of teenagers creates its own slang and grows up to use it, and the cycle goes on. It's a pretty peaceful and simple way, which is the complete opposite of what actually occurred in the past. The survival of English was actually  threatened in order for it to prevail.

I always wonder how it is that scientists and historians get all the information. Like, how they decipher runes, how they know what cells feel like (in terms of texture), etc. So I was actually very thankful to the creators of this series for taking the time to mention the source of their information: Everything up to 1155 was retrieved from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (3:33).

In 449 AD, Celtics arrived at Britain and divided England into three main regions: Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. (Essex [derived from the words "east" and "Saxon"] and Sussex [derived from the words "south" and "Saxon"] emerged later on). These newcomers are commonly referred to as the Anglo-Saxons, the fathers of the English language. They had three hundred rather peaceful years  but then, in 793 AD, they were attacked by the Danes. However, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, defeated them. This marked the first survival of the English language, and thanks to it, I am writing these words today. Otherwise, I would probably be doing so in Danish.

A few centuries later, in 1066, Duke William of Normandy invaded England, and King Harold was slayed. The new Norman rulers knew almost no English at all, but thanks to this, about 10,000 words were added to the English vocabulary. Many of the words I'm writing now are probably derived from Norman. England's invaders did not demolish the subjugated country's language, but actually strengthened it. The English language had then survived for the second and probably final time.

After this, came a time of linguistic development. The first book in English was written: The Canterbury  Tales. And soon, the printing press was created and employed in England. However, "the few [people] that could write, wrote as they spoke" (4:48) but slowly the spelling disagreements were agreed upon - though not entirely so. Finally, by the 1400's, English had developed and become very similar to today's twenty-first century English. I'll take full advantage of the still-developing English language and end with a cliché by simply saying that the rest, for now, is history.

The Story of English (Episode 2):
Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 1/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 2/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 3/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 4/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 5/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 6/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 2 - An English Speaking World - Part 7/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 13. Jan. 2013.

The "Victims" of the English language

"What's the world's most influential language?" It's an easy question, and it has been for centuries thanks to the fact that the world's most powerful nation went from being England to being the United States, both English-speaking countries. The first episode of The Story of English exemplifies the wide popularity of this language. It has become the means of communication between countries and is used for several purposes including sea-speak. When this was mentioned, I couldn't help but automatically connect it with this commercial -which hopefully doesn't actually occur in the real life:

Anyways, English is now not only a language spoken among different nations, but has also become a means of communication among a society. Africa and India, for example, use it as their "link language" (4:48), because it is a "neutral language" (5:00) that can connect them. It has become so important that now "English represents class" (0:05), as a teenage Hindu girl puts it in the video. 

However, it is not only in Africa and India that English is imperative in education. Look at me: I live in Colombia, but go to a school where I speak English all day and where I am taught by American teachers. So, if that doesn't show the power English presently has, I don't know what does. And English is certainly becoming a type of "class identifier." But there's no one to blame but ourselves. After all, it's not the Americans nor the British who are enforcing it amongst us: It is ourselves. If we think we are victims of the English language, then we have, in fact, willingly made ourselves its victims.

The Story of English (Episode 1):

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 1/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 2/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 3/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 4/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 5/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 6/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.

Armstrong, Edward. "The Story of English episode 1 - An English Speaking World - Part 7/7." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 27, Aug. 2009. Web. 11. Jan. 2013.